Thread states and the global interpreter lock
*********************************************

Unless on a *free-threaded build* of *CPython*, the Python interpreter
is generally not thread-safe.  In order to support multi-threaded
Python programs, there's a global lock, called the *global interpreter
lock* or *GIL*, that must be held by a thread before accessing Python
objects. Without the lock, even the simplest operations could cause
problems in a multi-threaded program: for example, when two threads
simultaneously increment the reference count of the same object, the
reference count could end up being incremented only once instead of
twice.

As such, only a thread that holds the GIL may operate on Python
objects or invoke Python's C API.

In order to emulate concurrency, the interpreter regularly tries to
switch threads between bytecode instructions (see
"sys.setswitchinterval()"). This is why locks are also necessary for
thread-safety in pure-Python code.

Additionally, the global interpreter lock is released around blocking
I/O operations, such as reading or writing to a file. From the C API,
this is done by detaching the thread state.

The Python interpreter keeps some thread-local information inside a
data structure called "PyThreadState", known as a *thread state*. Each
thread has a thread-local pointer to a "PyThreadState"; a thread state
referenced by this pointer is considered to be *attached*.

A thread can only have one *attached thread state* at a time. An
attached thread state is typically analogous with holding the GIL,
except on free-threaded builds.  On builds with the GIL enabled,
attaching a thread state will block until the GIL can be acquired.
However, even on builds with the GIL disabled, it is still required to
have an attached thread state, as the interpreter needs to keep track
of which threads may access Python objects.

Note:

  Even on the free-threaded build, attaching a thread state may block,
  as the GIL can be re-enabled or threads might be temporarily
  suspended (such as during a garbage collection).

Generally, there will always be an attached thread state when using
Python's C API, including during embedding and when implementing
methods, so it's uncommon to need to set up a thread state on your
own. Only in some specific cases, such as in a
"Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS" block or in a fresh thread, will the thread
not have an attached thread state. If uncertain, check if
"PyThreadState_GetUnchecked()" returns "NULL".

If it turns out that you do need to create a thread state, it is
recommended to use "PyThreadState_Ensure()" or
"PyThreadState_EnsureFromView()", which will manage the thread state
for you.


Detaching the thread state from extension code
==============================================

Most extension code manipulating the *thread state* has the following
simple structure:

   Save the thread state in a local variable.
   ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
   Restore the thread state from the local variable.

This is so common that a pair of macros exists to simplify it:

   Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
   ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
   Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS

The "Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS" macro opens a new block and declares a
hidden local variable; the "Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS" macro closes the
block.

The block above expands to the following code:

   PyThreadState *_save;

   _save = PyEval_SaveThread();
   ... Do some blocking I/O operation ...
   PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);

Here is how these functions work:

The attached thread state implies that the GIL is held for the
interpreter. To detach it, "PyEval_SaveThread()" is called and the
result is stored in a local variable.

By detaching the thread state, the GIL is released, which allows other
threads to attach to the interpreter and execute while the current
thread performs blocking I/O. When the I/O operation is complete, the
old thread state is reattached by calling "PyEval_RestoreThread()",
which will wait until the GIL can be acquired.

Note:

  Performing blocking I/O is the most common use case for detaching
  the thread state, but it is also useful to call it over long-running
  native code that doesn't need access to Python objects or Python's C
  API. For example, the standard "zlib" and "hashlib" modules detach
  the *thread state* when compressing or hashing data.

On a *free-threaded build*, the *GIL* is usually out of the question,
but **detaching the thread state is still required**, because the
interpreter periodically needs to block all threads to get a
consistent view of Python objects without the risk of race conditions.
For example, CPython currently suspends all threads for a short period
of time while running the garbage collector.

Warning:

  Detaching the thread state can lead to unexpected behavior during
  interpreter finalization. See Cautions regarding interpreter
  finalization for more details.


APIs
----

The following macros are normally used without a trailing semicolon;
look for example usage in the Python source distribution.

Note:

  These macros are still necessary on the *free-threaded build* to
  prevent deadlocks.

Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   This macro expands to "{ PyThreadState *_save; _save =
   PyEval_SaveThread();". Note that it contains an opening brace; it
   must be matched with a following "Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS" macro.  See
   above for further discussion of this macro.

Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   This macro expands to "PyEval_RestoreThread(_save); }". Note that
   it contains a closing brace; it must be matched with an earlier
   "Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS" macro.  See above for further discussion
   of this macro.

Py_BLOCK_THREADS
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   This macro expands to "PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);": it is
   equivalent to "Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS" without the closing brace.

Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   This macro expands to "_save = PyEval_SaveThread();": it is
   equivalent to "Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS" without the opening brace
   and variable declaration.


Using the C API from foreign threads
====================================

When threads are created using the dedicated Python APIs (such as the
"threading" module), a thread state is automatically associated with
them, However, when a thread is created from native code (for example,
by a third-party library with its own thread management), it doesn't
hold an attached thread state.

If you need to call Python code from these threads (often this will be
part of a callback API provided by the aforementioned third-party
library), you must first register these threads with the interpreter
by creating a new thread state and attaching it.

The easiest way to do this is through "PyThreadState_Ensure()" or
"PyThreadState_EnsureFromView()".

Note:

  These functions require an argument pointing to the desired
  interpreter; such a pointer can be acquired via a call to
  "PyInterpreterGuard_FromCurrent()" (for "PyThreadState_Ensure") or
  "PyInterpreterView_FromCurrent()" (for
  "PyThreadState_EnsureFromView") from the function that creates the
  thread. If no pointer is available (such as when the given native
  thread library doesn't provide a data argument),
  "PyInterpreterView_FromMain()" can be used to get a view for the
  main interpreter, but note that this will make the code incompatible
  with subinterpreters.

For example:

   // The return value of PyInterpreterGuard_FromCurrent() from the
   // function that created this thread.
   PyInterpreterGuard *guard = thread_data->guard;

   // Create a new thread state for the interpreter.
   PyThreadStateToken *token = PyThreadState_Ensure(guard);
   if (token == NULL) {
      PyInterpreterGuard_Close(guard);
      return;
   }

   // We have a valid thread state -- perform Python actions here.
   result = CallSomeFunction();
   // Evaluate result or handle exceptions.

   // Release the thread state. No calls to the C API are allowed beyond this
   // point.
   PyThreadState_Release(token);
   PyInterpreterGuard_Close(guard);

Keep in mind that calling "PyThreadState_Ensure" might not always
create a new thread state, and calling "PyThreadState_Release" might
not always detach it. These functions may reuse an existing attached
thread state, or may re-attach a thread state that was previously
attached for the current thread.

See also: **PEP 788**


Attaching/detaching thread states
---------------------------------

PyThreadStateToken *PyThreadState_Ensure(PyInterpreterGuard *guard)
    * Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.15.*

   Ensure that the thread has an attached thread state for the
   interpreter protected by *guard*, and thus can safely invoke that
   interpreter.

   It is OK to call this function if the thread already has an
   attached thread state, as long as there is a subsequent call to
   "PyThreadState_Release()" that matches this one (meaning that
   "nested" calls to this function are permitted).

   The function's effect (if any) will be reversed by the matching
   call to "PyThreadState_Release()".

   On error, this function returns "NULL" *without* an exception set.
   Do not call "PyThreadState_Release()" in this case.

   On success, this function returns a pointer value that must be
   passed to the matching call to "PyThreadState_Release()".

   The conditions in which this function creates a new *thread state*
   are considered unstable and implementation-dependent. If you need
   to control the exact lifetime of a thread state, consider using
   "PyThreadState_New()". However, do not avoid this function solely
   on the basis that the lifetime of the thread state may be
   inconsistent across versions; changes to this function will be done
   with caution and in a backwards-compatible manner. In particular,
   the saving of thread-local variables and similar state will be
   retained across Python versions.

   **CPython implementation detail:** The exact behavior of whether
   this function creates a new thread state is described below, but be
   aware that this may change in the future.

   First, this function checks if an attached thread state is present.
   If there is, this function then checks if the interpreter of that
   thread state matches the interpreter guarded by *guard*. If that is
   the case, this function simply marks the thread state as being used
   by a "PyThreadState_Ensure" call and returns.

   If there is no attached thread state, then this function checks if
   any thread state has been used by the current OS thread. (This is
   returned by "PyGILState_GetThisThreadState()".) If there was, then
   this function checks if that thread state's interpreter matches
   *guard*. If it does, it is re-attached and marked as used.

   Otherwise, if both of the above cases fail, a new thread state is
   created for *guard*. It is then attached and marked as owned by
   "PyThreadState_Ensure".

   Added in version 3.15.

PyThreadStateToken *PyThreadState_EnsureFromView(PyInterpreterView *view)
    * Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.15.*

   Get an attached thread state for the interpreter referenced by
   *view*.

   The behavior and return value are the same as for
   "PyThreadState_Ensure()"; additionally, if the function succeeds,
   the interpreter referenced by *view* will be implicitly guarded.
   The guard will be released upon the corresponding
   "PyThreadState_Release()" call.

   Added in version 3.15.

void PyThreadState_Release(PyThreadStateToken *token)
    * Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.15.*

   Undo a "PyThreadState_Ensure()" or "PyThreadState_EnsureFromView()"
   call.

   This must be called exactly once for each successful *Ensure* call,
   with *token* set to that call's return value.

   The state that was attached before the corresponding *Ensure* call
   (if any) will be attached when "PyThreadState_Release()" returns.

   The exact behavior of whether this function deletes a thread state
   is considered unstable and implementation-dependent.

   **CPython implementation detail:** Currently, this function will
   decrement an internal counter on the attached thread state. If this
   counter ever reaches below zero, this function emits a fatal error
   (via "Py_FatalError()").

   If the attached thread state is owned by "PyThreadState_Ensure",
   then the attached thread state will be deallocated and deleted upon
   the internal counter reaching zero. Otherwise, nothing happens when
   the counter reaches zero.

   Added in version 3.15.

type PyThreadStateToken
    * Part of the Stable ABI (as an opaque struct) since version
   3.15.*

   An opaque token retrieved from a "PyThreadState_Ensure()" call and
   passed to a corresponding "PyThreadState_Release()" call.


GIL-state APIs
==============

The following APIs are generally not compatible with subinterpreters
and will hang the process during interpreter finalization (see
Cautions regarding interpreter finalization). As such, these APIs were
*soft deprecated* in Python 3.15 in favor of the new APIs.

type PyGILState_STATE
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   The type of the value returned by "PyGILState_Ensure()" and passed
   to "PyGILState_Release()".

   enumerator PyGILState_LOCKED

      The GIL was already held when "PyGILState_Ensure()" was called.

   enumerator PyGILState_UNLOCKED

      The GIL was not held when "PyGILState_Ensure()" was called.

PyGILState_STATE PyGILState_Ensure()
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Ensure that the current thread is ready to call the Python C API
   regardless of the current state of Python, or of the *attached
   thread state*. This may be called as many times as desired by a
   thread as long as each call is matched with a call to
   "PyGILState_Release()". In general, other thread-related APIs may
   be used between "PyGILState_Ensure()" and "PyGILState_Release()"
   calls as long as the thread state is restored to its previous state
   before the Release().  For example, normal usage of the
   "Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS" and "Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS" macros is
   acceptable.

   The return value is an opaque "handle" to the *attached thread
   state* when "PyGILState_Ensure()" was called, and must be passed to
   "PyGILState_Release()" to ensure Python is left in the same state.
   Even though recursive calls are allowed, these handles *cannot* be
   shared - each unique call to "PyGILState_Ensure()" must save the
   handle for its call to "PyGILState_Release()".

   When the function returns, there will be an *attached thread state*
   and the thread will be able to call arbitrary Python code.

   This function has no way to return an error. As such, errors are
   either fatal (that is, they send "SIGABRT" and crash the process;
   see "Py_FatalError()"), or the thread will be permanently blocked
   (such as during interpreter finalization).

   Warning:

     Calling this function when the interpreter is finalizing will
     infinitely hang the thread, which may cause deadlocks. Cautions
     regarding interpreter finalization for more details.In addition,
     this function generally does not work with subinterpreters when
     used from foreign threads, because this function has no way of
     knowing which interpreter created the thread (and as such, will
     implicitly pick the main interpreter).

   Changed in version 3.14: Hangs the current thread, rather than
   terminating it, if called while the interpreter is finalizing.

   Soft deprecated since version 3.15: Use "PyThreadState_Ensure()" or
   "PyThreadState_EnsureFromView()" instead.

void PyGILState_Release(PyGILState_STATE)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Release any resources previously acquired.  After this call,
   Python's state will be the same as it was prior to the
   corresponding "PyGILState_Ensure()" call (but generally this state
   will be unknown to the caller, hence the use of the GIL-state API).

   Every call to "PyGILState_Ensure()" must be matched by a call to
   "PyGILState_Release()" on the same thread.

   Soft deprecated since version 3.15: Use "PyThreadState_Release()"
   instead.

PyThreadState *PyGILState_GetThisThreadState()
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Get the *thread state* that was most recently *attached* for this
   thread. (If the most recent thread state has been deleted, this
   returns "NULL".)

   If the caller has an attached thread state, it is returned.

   In other terms, this function returns the thread state that will be
   used by "PyGILState_Ensure()". If this returns "NULL", then
   "PyGILState_Ensure" will create a new thread state.

   This function cannot fail.

   Soft deprecated since version 3.15: Use "PyThreadState_Get()" or
   "PyThreadState_GetUnchecked()" instead.

int PyGILState_Check()

   Return "1" if the current thread has an *attached thread state*
   that matches the thread state returned by
   "PyGILState_GetThisThreadState()". If the caller has no attached
   thread state or it otherwise doesn't match, then this returns "0".

   If the current Python process has ever created a subinterpreter,
   this function will *always* return "1".

   This is mainly a helper/diagnostic function.

   Added in version 3.4.

   Soft deprecated since version 3.15: Use
   "PyThreadState_GetUnchecked() != NULL" instead.


Cautions about fork()
=====================

Another important thing to note about threads is their behaviour in
the face of the C "fork()" call. On most systems with "fork()", after
a process forks only the thread that issued the fork will exist.  This
has a concrete impact both on how locks must be handled and on all
stored state in CPython's runtime.

The fact that only the "current" thread remains means any locks held
by other threads will never be released. Python solves this for
"os.fork()" by acquiring the locks it uses internally before the fork,
and releasing them afterwards. In addition, it resets any Lock objects
in the child. When extending or embedding Python, there is no way to
inform Python of additional (non-Python) locks that need to be
acquired before or reset after a fork. OS facilities such as
"pthread_atfork()" would need to be used to accomplish the same thing.
Additionally, when extending or embedding Python, calling "fork()"
directly rather than through "os.fork()" (and returning to or calling
into Python) may result in a deadlock by one of Python's internal
locks being held by a thread that is defunct after the fork.
"PyOS_AfterFork_Child()" tries to reset the necessary locks, but is
not always able to.

The fact that all other threads go away also means that CPython's
runtime state there must be cleaned up properly, which "os.fork()"
does.  This means finalizing all other "PyThreadState" objects
belonging to the current interpreter and all other
"PyInterpreterState" objects.  Due to this and the special nature of
the "main" interpreter, "fork()" should only be called in that
interpreter's "main" thread, where the CPython global runtime was
originally initialized. The only exception is if "exec()" will be
called immediately after.


High-level APIs
===============

These are the most commonly used types and functions when writing
multi-threaded C extensions.

type PyThreadState
    * Part of the Stable ABI (as an opaque struct).*

   This data structure represents the state of a single thread.  The
   only public data member is:

   PyInterpreterState *interp

      This thread's interpreter state.

void PyEval_InitThreads()
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Deprecated function which does nothing.

   In Python 3.6 and older, this function created the GIL if it didn't
   exist.

   Changed in version 3.9: The function now does nothing.

   Changed in version 3.7: This function is now called by
   "Py_Initialize()", so you don't have to call it yourself anymore.

   Changed in version 3.2: This function cannot be called before
   "Py_Initialize()" anymore.

   Deprecated since version 3.9.

PyThreadState *PyEval_SaveThread()
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Detach the *attached thread state* and return it. The thread will
   have no *thread state* upon returning.

void PyEval_RestoreThread(PyThreadState *tstate)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Set the *attached thread state* to *tstate*. The passed *thread
   state* **should not** be *attached*, otherwise deadlock ensues.
   *tstate* will be attached upon returning.

   Note:

     Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
     finalizing will hang the thread until the program exits, even if
     the thread was not created by Python.  Refer to Cautions
     regarding interpreter finalization for more details.

   Changed in version 3.14: Hangs the current thread, rather than
   terminating it, if called while the interpreter is finalizing.

PyThreadState *PyThreadState_Get()
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Return the *attached thread state*. If the thread has no attached
   thread state, (such as when inside of "Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS"
   block), then this issues a fatal error (so that the caller needn't
   check for "NULL").

   See also "PyThreadState_GetUnchecked()".

PyThreadState *PyThreadState_GetUnchecked()

   Similar to "PyThreadState_Get()", but don't kill the process with a
   fatal error if it is NULL. The caller is responsible to check if
   the result is NULL.

   Added in version 3.13: In Python 3.5 to 3.12, the function was
   private and known as "_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()".

PyThreadState *PyThreadState_Swap(PyThreadState *tstate)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Set the *attached thread state* to *tstate*, and return the *thread
   state* that was attached prior to calling.

   This function is safe to call without an *attached thread state*;
   it will simply return "NULL" indicating that there was no prior
   thread state.

   See also: "PyEval_ReleaseThread()"

   Note:

     Similar to "PyGILState_Ensure()", this function will hang the
     thread if the runtime is finalizing.


Low-level APIs
==============

PyThreadState *PyThreadState_New(PyInterpreterState *interp)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Create a new thread state object belonging to the given interpreter
   object. An *attached thread state* is not needed.

void PyThreadState_Clear(PyThreadState *tstate)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Reset all information in a *thread state* object.  *tstate* must be
   *attached*

   Changed in version 3.9: This function now calls the
   "PyThreadState.on_delete" callback. Previously, that happened in
   "PyThreadState_Delete()".

   Changed in version 3.13: The "PyThreadState.on_delete" callback was
   removed.

void PyThreadState_Delete(PyThreadState *tstate)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Destroy a *thread state* object.  *tstate* should not be *attached*
   to any thread. *tstate* must have been reset with a previous call
   to "PyThreadState_Clear()".

void PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent(void)

   Detach the *attached thread state* (which must have been reset with
   a previous call to "PyThreadState_Clear()") and then destroy it.

   No *thread state* will be *attached* upon returning.

PyFrameObject *PyThreadState_GetFrame(PyThreadState *tstate)
    * Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.10.*

   Get the current frame of the Python thread state *tstate*.

   Return a *strong reference*. Return "NULL" if no frame is currently
   executing.

   See also "PyEval_GetFrame()".

   *tstate* must not be "NULL", and must be *attached*.

   Added in version 3.9.

uint64_t PyThreadState_GetID(PyThreadState *tstate)
    * Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.10.*

   Get the unique *thread state* identifier of the Python thread state
   *tstate*.

   *tstate* must not be "NULL", and must be *attached*.

   Added in version 3.9.

PyInterpreterState *PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(PyThreadState *tstate)
    * Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.10.*

   Get the interpreter of the Python thread state *tstate*.

   *tstate* must not be "NULL", and must be *attached*.

   Added in version 3.9.

void PyThreadState_EnterTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)

   Suspend tracing and profiling in the Python thread state *tstate*.

   Resume them using the "PyThreadState_LeaveTracing()" function.

   Added in version 3.11.

void PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(PyThreadState *tstate)

   Resume tracing and profiling in the Python thread state *tstate*
   suspended by the "PyThreadState_EnterTracing()" function.

   See also "PyEval_SetTrace()" and "PyEval_SetProfile()" functions.

   Added in version 3.11.

int PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection(PyThreadState *tstate, void *stack_start_addr, size_t stack_size)

   *This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor
   releases.*

   Set the stack protection start address and stack protection size of
   a Python thread state.

   On success, return "0". On failure, set an exception and return
   "-1".

   CPython implements recursion control for C code by raising
   "RecursionError" when it notices that the machine execution stack
   is close to overflow. See for example the "Py_EnterRecursiveCall()"
   function. For this, it needs to know the location of the current
   thread's stack, which it normally gets from the operating system.
   When the stack is changed, for example using context switching
   techniques like the Boost library's "boost::context", you must call
   "PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection()" to inform CPython of
   the change.

   Call "PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection()" either before or
   after changing the stack. Do not call any other Python C API
   between the call and the stack change.

   See "PyUnstable_ThreadState_ResetStackProtection()" for undoing
   this operation.

   Added in version 3.15.

void PyUnstable_ThreadState_ResetStackProtection(PyThreadState *tstate)

   *This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor
   releases.*

   Reset the stack protection start address and stack protection size
   of a Python thread state to the operating system defaults.

   See "PyUnstable_ThreadState_SetStackProtection()" for an
   explanation.

   Added in version 3.15.

PyObject *PyThreadState_GetDict()
    *Return value: Borrowed reference.** Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Return a dictionary in which extensions can store thread-specific
   state information.  Each extension should use a unique key to use
   to store state in the dictionary.  It is okay to call this function
   when no *thread state* is *attached*. If this function returns
   "NULL", no exception has been raised and the caller should assume
   no thread state is attached.

void PyEval_AcquireThread(PyThreadState *tstate)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   *Attach* *tstate* to the current thread, which must not be "NULL"
   or already *attached*.

   The calling thread must not already have an *attached thread
   state*.

   Note:

     Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is
     finalizing will hang the thread until the program exits, even if
     the thread was not created by Python.  Refer to Cautions
     regarding interpreter finalization for more details.

   Changed in version 3.8: Updated to be consistent with
   "PyEval_RestoreThread()", "Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS()", and
   "PyGILState_Ensure()", and terminate the current thread if called
   while the interpreter is finalizing.

   Changed in version 3.14: Hangs the current thread, rather than
   terminating it, if called while the interpreter is finalizing.

   "PyEval_RestoreThread()" is a higher-level function which is always
   available (even when threads have not been initialized).

void PyEval_ReleaseThread(PyThreadState *tstate)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Detach the *attached thread state*. The *tstate* argument, which
   must not be "NULL", is only used to check that it represents the
   *attached thread state* --- if it isn't, a fatal error is reported.

   "PyEval_SaveThread()" is a higher-level function which is always
   available (even when threads have not been initialized).


Asynchronous notifications
**************************

A mechanism is provided to make asynchronous notifications to the main
interpreter thread.  These notifications take the form of a function
pointer and a void pointer argument.

int Py_AddPendingCall(int (*func)(void*), void *arg)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Schedule a function to be called from the main interpreter thread.
   On success, "0" is returned and *func* is queued for being called
   in the main thread.  On failure, "-1" is returned without setting
   any exception.

   When successfully queued, *func* will be *eventually* called from
   the main interpreter thread with the argument *arg*.  It will be
   called asynchronously with respect to normally running Python code,
   but with both these conditions met:

   * on a *bytecode* boundary;

   * with the main thread holding an *attached thread state* (*func*
     can therefore use the full C API).

   *func* must return "0" on success, or "-1" on failure with an
   exception set.  *func* won't be interrupted to perform another
   asynchronous notification recursively, but it can still be
   interrupted to switch threads if the *thread state* is detached.

   This function doesn't need an *attached thread state*. However, to
   call this function in a subinterpreter, the caller must have an
   *attached thread state*. Otherwise, the function *func* can be
   scheduled to be called from the wrong interpreter.

   Warning:

     This is a low-level function, only useful for very special cases.
     There is no guarantee that *func* will be called as quick as
     possible.  If the main thread is busy executing a system call,
     *func* won't be called before the system call returns.  This
     function is generally **not** suitable for calling Python code
     from arbitrary C threads.  Instead, use
     "PyThreadState_EnsureFromView()".

   Added in version 3.1.

   Changed in version 3.9: If this function is called in a
   subinterpreter, the function *func* is now scheduled to be called
   from the subinterpreter, rather than being called from the main
   interpreter. Each subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled
   calls.

   Changed in version 3.12: This function now always schedules *func*
   to be run in the main interpreter.

int Py_MakePendingCalls(void)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Execute all pending calls. This is usually executed automatically
   by the interpreter.

   This function returns "0" on success, and returns "-1" with an
   exception set on failure.

   If this is not called in the main thread of the main interpreter,
   this function does nothing and returns "0". The caller must hold an
   *attached thread state*.

   Added in version 3.1.

   Changed in version 3.12: This function only runs pending calls in
   the main interpreter.

int PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(unsigned long id, PyObject *exc)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Schedule an exception to be raised asynchronously in a thread. If
   the thread has a previously scheduled exception, it is overwritten.

   The *id* argument is the thread id of the target thread, as
   returned by "PyThread_get_thread_ident()". *exc* is the class of
   the exception to be raised, or "NULL" to clear the pending
   exception (if any).

   Return the number of affected thread states. This is normally "1"
   if *id* is found, even when no change was made (the given *exc* was
   already pending, or *exc* is "NULL" but no exception is pending).
   If the thread id isn't found, return "0".  This raises no
   exceptions.

   To prevent naive misuse, you must write your own C extension to
   call this. This function must be called with an *attached thread
   state*. This function does not steal any references to *exc*. This
   function does not necessarily interrupt system calls such as
   "sleep()".

   Changed in version 3.7: The type of the *id* parameter changed from
   long to unsigned long.


Operating system thread APIs
****************************

PYTHREAD_INVALID_THREAD_ID

   Sentinel value for an invalid thread ID.

   This is currently equivalent to "(unsigned long)-1".

unsigned long PyThread_start_new_thread(void (*func)(void*), void *arg)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Start function *func* in a new thread with argument *arg*. The
   resulting thread is not intended to be joined.

   *func* must not be "NULL", but *arg* may be "NULL".

   On success, this function returns the identifier of the new thread;
   on failure, this returns "PYTHREAD_INVALID_THREAD_ID".

   The caller does not need to hold an *attached thread state*.

unsigned long PyThread_get_thread_ident(void)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Return the identifier of the current thread, which will never be
   zero.

   This function cannot fail, and the caller does not need to hold an
   *attached thread state*.

   See also:

     "threading.get_ident()" and "threading.Thread.ident" expose this
     identifier to Python.

PyObject *PyThread_GetInfo(void)
    * Part of the Stable ABI since version 3.3.*

   Get general information about the current thread in the form of a
   struct sequence object. This information is accessible as
   "sys.thread_info" in Python.

   On success, this returns a new *strong reference* to the thread
   information; on failure, this returns "NULL" with an exception set.

   The caller must hold an *attached thread state*.

PY_HAVE_THREAD_NATIVE_ID

   This macro is defined when the system supports native thread IDs.

unsigned long PyThread_get_thread_native_id(void)
    * Part of the Stable ABI on platforms with native thread IDs.*

   Get the native identifier of the current thread as it was assigned
   by the operating system's kernel, which will never be less than
   zero.

   This function is only available when "PY_HAVE_THREAD_NATIVE_ID" is
   defined.

   This function cannot fail, and the caller does not need to hold an
   *attached thread state*.

   See also: "threading.get_native_id()"

void PyThread_exit_thread(void)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Terminate the current thread. This function is generally considered
   unsafe and should be avoided. It is kept solely for backwards
   compatibility.

   This function is only safe to call if all functions in the full
   call stack are written to safely allow it.

   Warning:

     If the current system uses POSIX threads (also known as
     "pthreads"), this calls *pthread_exit(3)*, which attempts to
     unwind the stack and call C++ destructors on some libc
     implementations. However, if a "noexcept" function is reached, it
     may terminate the process. Other systems, such as macOS, do
     unwinding.On Windows, this function calls "_endthreadex()", which
     kills the thread without calling C++ destructors.In any case,
     there is a risk of corruption on the thread's stack.

   Deprecated since version 3.14.

void PyThread_init_thread(void)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Initialize "PyThread*" APIs. Python executes this function
   automatically, so there's little need to call it from an extension
   module.

int PyThread_set_stacksize(size_t size)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Set the stack size of the current thread to *size* bytes.

   This function returns "0" on success, "-1" if *size* is invalid, or
   "-2" if the system does not support changing the stack size. This
   function does not set exceptions.

   The caller does not need to hold an *attached thread state*.

size_t PyThread_get_stacksize(void)
    * Part of the Stable ABI.*

   Return the stack size of the current thread in bytes, or "0" if the
   system's default stack size is in use.

   The caller does not need to hold an *attached thread state*.
